What is report and its elements .How to write report and a example of report?

 What is Report?

A report is a statement of the results of an investigation or of any matter which definite information is required.

Common Elements of Report

The following common elements can be found in many different reports:-

•Title page

•Acknowledgements

• Abstract or summary

• Contents

•Introduction

•Methodology

•Results or findings

•Discussion

• Conclusion and recommendations

• References

•Appendices

We shall now look at each of these in turn.

Explanation

Title page

This should include the title of the report (which should give a precise indication of the subject matter), the author's name, module, course and the date.

Acknowledgements

You should acknowledge any help you have received in collecting the information for the report. This may be from librarians, technicians or computer center staff, for example.

Abstract or summary

This should be a short paragraph summarizing the main contents of the report. It should include a short statement of the main task, the methods used, conclusions reached and any recommendations to be made. The abstract or summary should be concise, informative and independent of the report. Write this section after you have written the report.

Contents

You should list all the main sections of the report in sequence with the page numbers they begin on. If there are charts, diagrams or tables included in your report, these should be listed separately under a title such as "List of Illustrations' together with the page numbers on which they appear.

Introduction

This should give the context and scope of the report and should include your terms of reference. State your objectives clearly, define the limits of the report, outline the method of enquiry, give a brief general background to the subject of the report and indicate the proposed development.

Methodology

In this section you should state how you carried out your enquiry. What form did your enquiry take ? Did you carry out interviews or questionnaires, how your data ? What measurements did you make ? How did you did you collect choose the subjects for your interviews ? Present this information logically  and concisely.

Results or findings

Present your findings in as simple a way as possible. The more complicated the information looks, the more difficult it will be to interpret. There are number of ways in which results can be presented. Here are a few :

• Tables

• Graphs

•Pie charts

• Bar charts

• Diagrams

Illustration checklist

• Are all your diagrams/illustrations clearly labelled?

• Do they all have titles?

• Is the link between the text and the diagram clear?

• Are the headings precise?

• Are the axes of graphs clearly labelled?

• Can tables be easily interpreted?

• Have you abided by any copyright laws when including illustrations/tables from published documents?

Discussion

This is the section where you can analyze and interpret your results drawing from the information which you have collected, explaining its significance. Identify important issues and suggest explanations for your findings. Outline any problems encountered and try to present a balanced view.

Conclusions and recommendations

This is the section of the report which draws together the main issues. It should be expressed clearly and should not present any new information. You may wish to list your recommendations in separate section or include them with the conclusions.

References

It is important that you give precise details of all the work by other authors which has been referred to within the report. Details should include:

•author's name and initials

•date of publication

•title of the book, paper or journal publisher

• place of publication

• details of the journal volume in which the article has appeared.

References should be listed in alphabetical order of the authors' names. Make sure that your references are accurate and comprehensive.

Appendices

An appendix contains additional information related to the report but which is not essential to the main findings. This can be consulted if the reader wishes but the report should not depend on this. You could include details of interview questions, statistical data, a glossary of terms, or other information which may be useful for the reader.

Example of Report

1. Research paper

Study on the Agricultural System of Sano Khokana Village in

Kathmandu Valley

Abstract

This paper deals with the study of the agricultural system of Sano Khokana village in Kathmandu Valley. Since it discusses on agricultural system, it tries to study the socio-economic condition of the farmers while shifting from traditional technology to the modern technologies and the problems and constraints frequently faced by the farmers. With regard to the study data were derived by the researchers present themselves amongst the farmers in the village. The obtained data were analyzed in different perspectives and it was concluded that agricultural practice and its effectiveness is in question in that village because of the problems like lack of irrigation, land fragmentation, lack of trainings, lack of agriculture service centers, etc.

1. Introduction

Khokana, popularly known for its unique historical and cultural heritage and mustard-oil based cottage industry, is a small village situated in 5 km south from Ekantakuna, Lalitpur. Khokana is geographically separated into two parts  Sano Khokana and Thulo Khokana. Sano Khokana which is 2 km far from Thulo Khokana comprises a total of 44 households. It is a Newar settlement and agriculture is the main source of subsistence for the people.

Agriculture was the largest sector and the backbone of Khokana's economy, and was the major source of livelihood of majority of the population. It was the only sector with practical potentiality for improving the living condition of the people. People used to fulfill their all household needs and even made some additional benefit from the agricultural practices in the past. Unfortunately, in the recent years farmers are gradually shifting from merely engaged in agriculture to other alternative ways of sustenance. The productivity of the major crops could not increase in the ratio as it had increased in the past years.

Shift is seen there mainly because of the societal and educational awareness and changes in the society. People do not have great interest in agriculture as there is no good irrigation and hence they have to depend on rainfall for cultivation and other activities. Though Khokana is typically known for its agricultural practices, most of the people are still deprived of the agricultural trainings and instructional program. This study tries to explore the causes behind these problems in an objective way.

2. Objectives:

The followings are the objectives of the study:

To study the socio-economic condition of the farmers

To document the shift in agricultural system.

To find out problems and constraints of the farmers.

3. Methodology

To carry out the research on the agricultural system of the village, basically the primary data was used. For this, a group of researchers visited the place and tried to gather the information with recourse to the following ways and

materials: Questionnaire Survey, Seasonal Calendar, Transect Walk, Time- Time series ,The researchers prepared the questionnaire related to agriculture and agricultural problems, visited the informants and let them respond to fill

those questions. In this the researchers tried to include different people ranging from youngsters to the adults, males to the females so as to triangulate the obtained data. Seasonal Calendar and Time Line Series helped to see the shifting trend and the productivity of the crops in a comparative way. Transect Walk was also done to strengthen and consolidate the information

4. Results and discussion:

4.1 Changes in socio-economic condition of the people

Sano Khokana community comprises 44 households with 5 members in average in each household. This community is a Newar community and is typical in its cultural and historical aspects. More than 90% of the people are involved in agricultural activities to sustain their livelihood. Since the agriculture is the main source of income of Khokana villagers, the entire economy and culture is also affected by agriculture and vice-versa. G.Maharjan (Personal Communication. June 8.2010) says, "The people who have the land more than 10 ropanies need not buy foods and vegetables from the market". They instead make up some money by selling the agricultural products. The selling could not provide them the noticeable benefit while calculating the entire expenses from cultivation to marketing. Except land, it expends/costs Rs.4500-5500 from cultivating paddy to marketing in a ropani.

From a ropani at most 3 quintal is produced by selling it, one can make Rs.9000 as 1 kg paddy is equal to Rs.30, But if the farmers further process the raw product to beaten rice, the value added is high and hence make more benefit. The farmers can sell I kg beaten rice at Rs65, From this, it is seen that the processed product provides mare benefit than the raw products,

However, the coin has another part as well Some farmers have less amount of land and some even do not have. Those who do not have land for cultivation are seen to have sought other alternatives. M.Maharjan(Personal Communication, June says that he does not have farming land and to sustain his livelihood. he is involved in handicraft. From handicraft he normally makes Rs-9000 in a month. This is how agriculture determines the economy Of the people living there.

Education is also another main domain of social analysis. Due to awareness to have education, almost all households send their children to the schools and colleges. Moreover in the recent days adult literacy program has also been conducted to awaken them towards the use of modern hybrid seeds and technologies, however, no change is seen in introducing new technology and process of farming. Once they practiced the hybrid maize, but they did not continue it because local maize was far more tastier than the hybrid one. Influence of educational awareness in agriculture here can be conceived in two lack of laborer because the young age group got enrolled in schools and colleges (b) people did not implement new technology even if they knew that increased the productivity.

The -people are economically so conscious that. they have formed different groups to utilize the money obtained from agriculture. There is Rotatory Fund Group, Loan Group, Farmers Group, etc. In these groups the farme^rs use money at 24% of interest It's only the women involved in these group . It shows the gender awareness and empowerment, Moreover women also have access control over resources. When they need the things for the household and agricultural purpose, they decide themselves and bought. From this it can be asserted that there is high mobility of female while managing the agricultural input,

4.2 Shift in Agricultural System

To see the shift in the agricultural system. the agricultural condition of that place was studied in time line series which is described below,

 

Time Line Series

Year	Events	Effects
Before 2024	-Indigenous farming practice -Mustard processing	-Around one and half quintal in a ropani -Less productivity -sale of oil to neighboring areas
2024	Introducing Tai-chin variety	Production increased(3 quintal in a ropani)
2032	Introduction of Beth mill for oil processing	More oil production Economy bettered
2037	Commercial production of vegetable	Enough to fulfill the demand of Kathmandu valley
2040	Use of mill made of leather for oil processing	Easy and fast in oil processing
2047	Stopped commercial production of vegetable	Economy could not increase
2057	Stopped rearing livestock	Decline in organic farming Use of chemical fertilizers
2060 onwards	Mechanization of agriculture	Decline involvement of people

4.2.1 Cropping Pattern

The pattern of cropping was 'rice-wheat and rice' or 'rice-mustard-rice' before 1996. But after 1996 there was the rehabilitation of the canal that resulted into the significant increase in the production of that area. The farmers also changed the cropping pattern from 'paddy-wheat' to 'paddy vegetable'. They started mixed cropping or in other words they commenced to cultivate maize and vegetables together in a same field. The major vegetable crops were beans, soybeans, garlic, radish, etc. The farmers also started rotation of the crops .1f they practiced the 'paddy-maize —paddy' in one year, next alternative crops like Paddy-mustard-vegetable' are practiced in the next year.

4.2.2 Productivity

When analyzed the entire time line series, it is apparent that the production status could not significantly increased. Before 2024 there was less

productivity as the people practiced indigenous farming. But when Tai-chin   variety was introduced, production increased to 3 quintal in a ropani. Once they introduced Tai-chin. they never practiced another more developed variety of Tai-chin or any other variety, that's why there has been a slow and gradual decrease in production. Now productivity is decreasing which accounts only for 1-2 quintal in a ropani.

4.2.3 Rearing Livestock and Use Of Fertilizer

Rearing livestock has undoubtedly become a major source of manure in the history of agricultural Carmi ng. The farmers of Khokana also reared livestock , in each household in the past. People used to make some money from milk as well. DDC also collected milk from there but they were not fetched the price so they stopped rearing livestock, Now there is not even a single cuttle tamed. And this concomitant effect was seen on organic farming. Since the farmers stopped rearing livestock, they started using chemical fertilizers but not in a balanced way. Farmers use 90% urea and DAP &MOP .Such imbalance use of chemical fertilizers has ruined the productivity and fertility of the land and hence there is proportional decrease in the production status of crops.

42.4 Pesticides and Mechanization in Agriculture

Before 2037 farmers never used pesticides in their crops. When they started commercial production of vegetable, they began to use pesticides. They had a false note "pesticides and fertilizers are the same which increase the production of crops". But they never used pesticides effectively because they were over conscious about the environment and natural enemies, It seems good in one way because they wish they could protect land animals like worms, etc. It is dangerous as well because farmers do not use pesticides even if the insects/diseases are about to destroy the whole crops. A significant shift can be observed in the process of agricultural cultivation and harvesting. The farmers practiced machine in farming, They use power tillers to plow the land. thresher to harvest the ripe crops. They also use 'winnowing devices in harvesting. These indicate the mechanization in agriculture which ultimately reduces the human efforts or involvement.

4.3 Problems and Constraints of the Farmers

4.3.1 Problem of Irrigation and Land Fragmentation

The greatest problem the farmers have been suffering from last 30 years is the problem of irrigation. Previously there was canal from Nakhkhu river through Thulo Khokana to Sano Khokana. water was also accessible to the farming land -But now the amount of water in the source is decreasing and moreover than that the whole water of canal is already used by the farmers of Thulo Khokana. The farmers Of small Konkani have to utterly depend the rainfall. If there is no rainfall. they cannot cultivate the crops, Instead this land is also being gradually fragmented as the population increases. It is very difficult to use power tillers and other farming machines in such fragmented land ,has also been implicitly affected because of the chemical fertilizers with intent of huge production. 

4.  3.2 Problems Appeared in Vegetable Cropping and Mushroom Houses

After 2037 people started vegetable production commercially also able to fulfill the need of Kathmandu valley, but could not continue it till now. Why? It is because the government never paid sincere attention to facilitate them in farming. There is not yet the agriculture service center. Though canal was there. after hardly flowed in the past let alone in the present lime, The farmers of that village have less accessibility or in many cases no accessibility of agricultural training, That created the problem in the farmers and they stopped commercial production of vegetable after 2047.

From transect walk some mushroom houses were also seen, but they were messy and unmanaged. To the enquiry, the farmers said it was tedious job to ^o row mushroom. They also expressed the market constraints of the mushroom. So it is about to perish from there. These all show the problem over problem in the agricultural practices of the Khokana farmers.

5.  Conclusion

From the analysis of the primary data obtained from Sano Khokana, asserted that agriculture has become the main occupation of since their settlement. Most of the people have their own land some people do not ,Those having less land or no land are seen to have sought other alternatives for sustenance. Female empowerment is also found in basic/rudimentary level as there are different groups to advocate the females' problems. Educational awareness in the new-generation is another aspect that has decreased the involvement of youth in agricultural activities. But adult literacy program has helped to generate new concepts about farming in old —aged group, Along with the educational awareness farmers are found to have shifted to intercropping and mixed cropping from mono cropping. Despite their consciousness, they stopped rearing livestock as a result they are prone to chemical fertilizers which is disastrous to the land. Nowadays mechanization in agriculture is clearly seen by the use of tractors, power tillers, threshers, winnowing devices, etc- that alleviate the farmers by reducing human effort. However. having faced many problems like. lack of irrigation, land fragmentation. inaccessibility of the villagers on agricultural trainings. etc. the involvement of people in agriculture has gradually decreased nowadays. Therefore. it is necessary to address these problems instantly for the betterment of the village and villagers.

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